TürkçeJERUSALEM IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT
*Prof. Dr. Adem APAK
Jerusalem which is a sacred city where most of the leaders of monotheism, in other words, prophets deliver the message of Allah’s religion to the people and thus, it has an undeniable importance for three Abrahamic religions has become the center of attention for many states and nations throughout the history. On the other hand, Jerusalem is the legacy of prophets which are the representatives of monotheism on earth since Prophet Adam. Since the beginning of its establishment, Jerusalem has become the religious capital of Damascus region, specifically. After the settlement of Prophets Abraham and Lot in Palestine region, the whole region was considered as sacred:
“Then We delivered him [Abraham], along with Lot, to the land We had showered with blessings for all people”(1).
The reason why this blessed land is considered sacred is undoubtedly because many prophets came and passed from this city and also, died and buried there throughout the history with Allah’s wisdom.
Muslims have given various names to this city and the foremost amongst them is “Kuds” which means, “to be blessed, sacred”. As the most known name of city, the word “kuds” originates from Aramaic word “kudşa” but this word signifies the prayer hall not the city. At the beginning of 10th century, Karaite scholars named the city of Jerusalem as “Beytülmakdis (Baytul Maqdis)” and the area where temple stood as “Kuds”. The name of “İliya” which is used by Muslims came from Romans’ nomination for the city “Aelia” and made Arabic as “İliya”. In Islamic documents, it is mentioned as “İliyâ medînetü beyti’l-makdis” and it is shortly called as “İliyâ” or “Baytul Maqdis (Beytülmukaddes)”. “Baytul Maqdis” which is “Bethmakdeşa” in Aramic and “Bethhamikdaş” in Hebrew firstly referred to the temple and over time, started to signify the whole city whereas the area of the temple named as “harem” (2).
The name “Kudüs” (Jerusalem) do not literally pass in the Holy Quran and yet, the Quran mentions “Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa” (Al-Aqsa Mosque) whose surroundings have been blessed (3), as well as defines the region as “holy land (4)” and “a good place (5)”. In hadiths of Prophet Muhammed, it is indicated that Al-Masjid Al-Aqsa (Al-Aqsa Mosque) along with Al-Masjid AI-Haram (The Sacred Mosque of Mecca) and Al-Masjid An- Nabawi (The Prophet's Mosque) are only mosques that can be set out on a journey for and Al-Aqsa Mosque is the second mosque of Earth built after The Sacred Mosque of Mecca (6). Certain reports claim that Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) recommended to perform Salah in “Baytul Maqdis (7).
(1) Al-Anbya, 21/ 71.
(2) Harman, Ömer Faruk, “Kudüs”, DİA, XXVI, 324.
(3) Al-Isra 17/1
(4) Al-Ma'idah 5/21
(5) Yûnus 10/93.
(6) Buhârî, “Fażlü’ś-śalât fî mescidi Mekke ve’l-Medîne”, 6, “Ĥac”, 26, “Enbiyâ”, 8, 40; Müslim, “Ĥac”, 288, “Mesâcid”, 2; Nesâî, “Mesâcid”, 3
(7) Ebû Dâvûd, “Salât”, 14
THE FOUNDATIONS OF MUSLIMS’ PERCEPTIONS OF JERUSALEM: MI’RAJ AND QIBLAH
A. MI’RAJ
The importance of Jerusalem deepened for Muslims when Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) took a Night Journey called as miracle Israʾ from Masjid al-Haram to Al-Aqsa Mosque whose surroundings have been blessed and then, he ascended into heaven from Al-Aqsa Mosque in a miracle named Miʿraj.
“Glory to Him who made His servant ˹Muḥammad˺ travel by night from al-Masjid al-Ḥaram to al-Masjid al-Aqsa whose surroundings We have blessed, to show him of Our signs. He alone is the All Hearing, the All Seeing” (8).
The word “Miʿraj” stems from the root “urûc” which means “to ascend, to rise” as well as “a tool for ascension, stairs”. As a term, it signifies the ascension of Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) into heaven and arrival at the presence of Allah. Since this miracle is interpreted as a journey from Masjid al-Haram to Al-Aqsa Mosque and then ascension from there into heaven, it is usually mentioned as “Isra’ and Mi’raj” in the sources (9).
In Islamic resources, the miracle of Mi’raj occurred in two phases called “Isra’” and “Mi’raj”. According to these resources, Prophet Muhammed’s (peace be upon him) night journey from Masjid al-Haram to Al-Aqsa Mosque is called “Isra’” and his ascension into heaven is called “Mi’raj”. The word “isrâ” (10) stems from the root word “seyr” which means “walking or traveling at night” and it is also the name of a surah (chapter) of the Quran. The first verse of the surah recounts that Allah took His servant (Prophet Muhammed) at night from Masjid al-Haram to Al-Aqsa Mosque whose surroundings have been blessed in order to show him the signs of His might. The word “mi’raj” does not literally pass in the Holy Quran; however, the plural version of the word “meâric” which means the “the ways of ascension” is attributed to Allah in this verse: “[It is] from Allah, owner of the ways of ascent” (11). Additionally, the term “meâric” which has the meaning of “stairs” and comes from the same root of the abovementioned expression passes in one specific verse as well as certain verbs derived from the root word “urûc” passes in a number of verses in Quran (12).
(8) Al-Isra, 17/1.
(9) Râğıb el-Isfahânî, el-Müfredât, İstanbul 1986, s. 493; İbn Manzûr, Lisânü’l-Arab, I-XV, Beyrut ts. (Dârus-Sâdır), II, 220-222.
(10) Râğıb el-Isfahânî, el-Müfredât, pp.338-339; İbn Manzûr, Lisânü’l-Arab, XIV, 382.
(11) Al-Ma'arij, 70/3.
(12) Abdülbâkî, M.F.,el-Mucemu’l-Müfehres, Beyrut ts. (Dâru İhyâi’d-Türâsi’l-Arabî), p. 456.
There are many tales about Isra’ and Mi’rac in both hadith resources and Sīrah (prophetic biography of Muhammed) and Dalaʼil (works on Muhammed’s Miracles and Proofs of Prophecy) books. According to the common points on the narratives of al-Bukhari (13) and Muslim (14), the miracle occurred as such: One night, when Prophet Muhammed was in a place called Hateem, also known as the Hijr Ismail, in Kaaba – some say that he was asleep or in a half awake half asleep state - Archangel Gabriel came to him, opened his chest, washed it with Zamzam water, filled it with faith and wisdom and then, closed it. Subsequently, he put Muhammed on Buraq (a supernatural horse-like creature in Islamic tradition) and took him to Baytul Maqdis or Jerusalem. After Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) performed two rak'ah (specific set of movements) salah in Al-Aqsa Mosque, Gabriel brought him a vessel of wine and a vessel of milk. When Muhammed chose the milk, he told him “You have chosen the Fitrah (natural instinct)”; then, took him to heavens. In every level of heaven, Prophet Muhammed met with other prophets; respectively, Adam, Jesus, Joseph, Idris, Aaron, then Moses, and lastly Abraham in Bait al-Makmur (a pilgrimage site that was originally built by Adam); afterwards, he arrived at the presence of Allah. In there, Allah told him that his people must pray the salah 50 times a day. During his descension to Earth, he encountered with Moses who advised him to go back to Allah and ask for fewer prayers because 50 would be too many for his people. His dialogue with Moses and his appeal to Allah continued until the prayers of salah were reduced to the five daily prayers (15) . According to other sources, Muhammed received the last verses of surah Al-Baqarah and was heralded with a good news that said forgiveness could be granted to Allah’s servants as long as they do not fall into Shirk (idolatry or polytheism) (16)
(13) Muhammad al-Bukhari was a 9th-century Muslim muhaddith who is widely regarded as the most important hadith scholar in the history of Sunni Islam. (t.n.)
(14) Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, also known as Imam Muslim, was an Islamic scholar from the city of Nishapur, particularly known as a muhaddith (scholar of hadith). (t.n.)
(15) Buhârî, “Salât”, 1, “Tevhîd”, 37; Müslim, “Îmân”, 259, 262-263, “Fezâil”, 164.
(16) Ahmed b. Hanbel, Müsned, I, 422; Müslim, “Îmân”, 279.
B. QIBLAH
Ever since the first days of Islam in Mecca, salah is one of the most important ways of praying in this religion and the fact that Al-Aqsa Mosque was the first qiblah (the direction of prayer for the salah) of Islam shows the importance of city of Jerusalem. During the period in Mecca and for one and a half years after Hijrah (17), Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) performed the salah in the direction of Jerusalem. In Mecca, he was praying by taking Kaaba between him and Jerusalem in order to not turn his back to Kaaba and to face both sacred mosques at the same time. After Hijrah, Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) received verses about the change qiblah while he was in the middle of praying with his companions in Beni Selime mosque:
“We have certainly seen the turning of your face, [O Muḥammad], toward the heaven, and We will surely turn you to a qiblah with which you will be pleased. So turn your face [i.e., yourself] toward al-Masjid al-Haram.1 And wherever you [believers] are, turn your faces [i.e., yourselves] toward it [in prayer]. Indeed, those who have been given the Scripture [i.e., the Jews and the Christians] well know that it is the truth from their Lord. And Allah is not unaware of what they do. And if you brought to those who were given the Scripture every sign, they would not follow your qiblah. Nor will you be a follower of their qiblah. Nor would they be followers of one another's qiblah. So if you were to follow their desires after what has come to you of knowledge, indeed, you would then be among the wrongdoers (18) ”.
After these verses which were sent during the midday salah in the month of Rajab in Hijri calendar (19), , Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) turned his face from Jerusalem to the direction of Mecca. Due to the fact that Muhammed performed his salah in the direction of two different qiblahs, this mosque was known as “Masjid al-Qiblatayn (Mosque of the Two Qiblas)” from then on (20). The change of qiblah in the direction of Kaaba enabled Muslims to gain their own qiblah independent from Jews and Christians after they gained their political independence in Medina. The new qiblah of Muslims is also received as a first sign for the conquest of Mecca by Muslims in the future and the purification of Kaaba from idols.
After Kaaba becoming new qiblah, Muslim started to be called to prayer by adhan (Islamic call to prayer). Subsequently, Muslims were prescribed with fards (21) such as fasting of Ramadan, zakat (giving alms) and Eid prayers, later Qurban or udhiyah (Islamic ritual sacrifice) was added (22). By so doing, the foundation of society in Medina happened together with religious improvements. Muslims have always realized the significance of their first qiblah and known that this sacred place should always be overheld and protected under the monotheism faith.
In Muslim faith, the first qiblah of Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) and the sacred place where Isra’ and Miʿraj miracles occurred is always regarded as highly valuable and believed in its holiness. When Muslims started to leave the region of Hejaz and go out into the world in order to spread Islam religion to humanity and conquer places in the name of Islam, their first target was Palestine, especially Baytul Maqdis (Jerusalem) which was crucial to reach and conquer; thus, it became one of the first conquered places under Islam in the beginning of Islamic conquests. In order to protect this heritage, Jerusalem was conquered by the second Rashidun caliph Omar and taken from the Byzantine Empire in 638.
(17) The journey the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina. (t.n.)
(18) Al-Baqarah 2/144-145.
(19) Known as the Muslim calendar and Islamic calendar, is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 lunar months in a year of 354 or 355 days. (t.n.)
(20) Buhârî, “Tefsîru’l-Kur’ân” 14, 15; İbn Hişâm, es-Sîretü’n-Nebeviyye, (thk. Mustafa es-Sakkâ-İbrahim el-Ebyârî-Abdülhâfız Şelebî), I-IV, Beyrut ts., II, 198-199, 256; İbn Sa’d, et-Tabakâtü’l-Kübrâ, I-VIII, Beyrut ts. (Dâru Sâdır), I, 241-244; Belâzürî, Ensâbü’l-Eşrâf, I, (thk. Muhammed Hamidullah), Jerusalem, 1963, I, 271.
(21) Fard or fardh in Islam is a religious duty commanded by Allah. (t.n.)
(22) İbn Sa’d, et-Tabakât, I, 246-249; Belâzürî, Ensâb, I, 271-274.
After the Battle of the Yarmuk, the road for İliya or Aelia was opened for Muslims. This was the sacred region that included Jerusalem. Amr ibn al-A'as who was appointed for the conquest of Palestine and its surroundings since the rule of the first caliph Abu Bakr finally took Jerusalem under the siege. Abu ʿUbayda who was a commander of the Syrian Rashidun army also contributed to the siege. The leading men of the city realized that they could not resist the Rashidun army and decided to surrender without bloodshed. For this purpose, they reached out the commanders of the siege and notified them that they were willing to make a peaceful treaty similar to those made with Damascus in return for paying jizya (23) and tax; however, they asked to surrender their city to the Rashidun caliph Omar himself. When Medina was notified about the situation, Omar replied he also had the intention of visiting Damascus. The Caliph met with his commanders and Jerusalem messengers in Jabiyah and signed the peace treaty. (H.16/ 637 AD) (24). The rules of treaty that Caliph Omar made with the people of Jerusalem are as follows:
“In the name of Allah, the Merciful, the Compassionate. This is the assurance of safety which the servant of Allah, Omar, the Commander of the Faithful, has given to the people of Aelia. He has given them an assurance of safety for themselves, for their property, their churches, their crosses, the sick and healthy of the city and for all the rituals which belong to their religion. Their churches will not be inhabited by Muslims and will not be destroyed. Neither they, nor the land on which they stand, nor their cross, nor their property will be damaged. They will not be forcibly converted. The people of Jerusalem must pay the taxes like the people of other cities and must expel the Byzantines and the robbers. Those of the people of Jerusalem who want to leave with the Byzantines, take their property and abandon their churches and crosses will be safe until they reach their place of refuge. The villagers [who had taken refuge in the city at the time of the conquest] may remain in the city if they wish but must pay taxes like the citizens. Those who wish may go with the Byzantines and those who wish may return to their families. Nothing is to be taken from them before their harvest is reaped” (25).
Caliph Omar who entered to Jerusalem after the treaty commanded a mosque to be built and returned to Medina (26). At this event, it can be seen how Muslims treat their defeated enemies humanely. Considering the fact that how Crusaders treated to Muslims and Jews when they took Jerusalem back, the difference between the attitudes would be crystal clear.
(23) A kind of tax paid by non-Muslim minorities.
(24) Belâzürî, Futûhu’l-Buldân, (thk. Abdullah Enîs et-Tabbâ-Ömer Enîs et-Tabbâ), Beyrut 1987, s.188-189; İbnü’l-Esîr, el-Kâmil fi’t-Tarih, I-IX, Beyrut 1986, II, 3347-350.
(25) Taberî, Tarihu’l-Ümem ve’l-Mülûk, (thk. Muhammed Ebu’l-Fadl İbrahim), I-XI, Beyrut ts. (Dâru’s-Süveydân), III, 609-610.
(26) Taberî, Tarih, III, 609-611.
After the conquest of Jerusalem which is sacred for Jews, Christians and Muslims, many Companions of the Prophet Muhammed (ṣaḥāba) and tabi'un (27) visited the city and some even settled there. Some Companions were buried in Jerusalem and Ubadah ibn al-Samit is one of them.
(27) "followers" or "successors", the generation of Muslims who followed the companions (ṣaḥāba) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and thus received their teachings secondhand. (t.n.)
During the rule of Umayyad Caliphate, Mu'awiya I based the capital of the state in Damascus and thus, Jerusalem as well as Syria region gained more importance. Umayyad Caliphates Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik specifically preferred Jerusalem to be proclaimed as caliph. Other caliphs such as al-Walid I ibn Abd al-Malik, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz and Yazid II ibn Abd al-Malik often visited Jerusalem. Furthermore, being appointed as Governor of Palestine region which includes Jerusalem was considered a great honor at that time, this position was only granted to Umayyad Princes such as Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan and Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik and other important figures.
The most important town planning in Jerusalem under the Umayyad rule was the construction of Qubbat al-Sakhra (The Dome of the Rock) and Al-Aqsa Mosque. Qubbat al-Sakhra, in other words The Dome of the Rock that was ordered by Abd al-Malik to be built is one of the most beautiful works of Islamic architecture.
The other important architectural work of art in Jerusalem is Al-Aqsa Mosque which was commissioned to be built by either Abd al-Malik or his son Walid I. Due to development and housing activities during Umayyad Caliphate, the Arab population of the city increased.
When Abbasid Caliphate came to power, their capital became Baghdad and thus, Syria and Palestine regions remained in the background but Jerusalem kept its significance by being the third sacred city in Islamic world after Mecca and Medina. As a matter of fact, Abbasid caliph Abu Jaʿfar al-Manṣur visited Jerusalem two times in the years of 758 (H. 140) and 771 (H. 154). On both of his visits, he commanded the reconstruction of Al-Aqsa Mosque which was damaged because of the earthquakes in 747-48 (H. 130) and 771 (H. 154), respectively. His son Caliph al-Mahdi visited the city in 780 (H. 163) and commanded reparations on the Mosque which was damaged during the 774 (H. 158) earthquake. On the other hand, Christian inhabitants and visitors of the city also benefited from the importance of sacred city Jerusalem in the eyes of Muslim rulers and Christian kings. For instance, owing to the friendship between Caliph Harun al-Rashid and Charlemagne, king of the Franks, the King commissioned the establishment of accommodation buildings for visitors and a library. Charlemagne’s successor and son Louis made a financial support for city’s Christian inhabitants in order to help them pay jizra tax (28). Caliph al-Ma'mun attributed great importance to Jerusalem and thus, he had the Eastern and Northern doors of the Noble Sanctuary made (831/H. 216) whereas Caliph al-Muqtadir’s mother offered four beautiful doors to Qubbat al-Sakhra (The Dome of the Rock).
Jerusalem kept its importance as a religious center under the Muslim rule and at the same time, became a scientific and educational center in 8th century. For example, members of ulama (29) such as Al-Awza'I, Sufyan al-Thawri, al-Lays b. Sa'd and Al-Shafi'i visited the city and gave lectures. In the same century, the fact that Sufis such as Rabia al-Adawiyya, Bishr the Barefoot and Sari al-Saqati settled in Jerusalem made the city more attractive for Sufis. During the six centuries rule of Abbasid Caliphate, Jerusalem became a popular, safe city visited by religious and scientific scholars and thinkers as well as tradesmen (30).
(28) EI² [İng.], V, 326
(29) Scholars of Islamic doctrine and law.
(30) Avcı, Casim, “Kudüs”, DİA, XXVI, 327-328
During his 23 years as a prophet, Prophet Muhammed (peace be upon him) performed his salah prayers in the direction of Al-Aqsa Mosque for 14 years; and thus, it is greatly insulting for Muslims that this sacred place – the mosque whose surroundings have been blessed and the holy city Jerusalem – is now under occupation. Even though the city was invaded before throughout the history, Muslims always found a way to save their sacred city. When Crusaders attacked the city with a big army and made a horrible massacre, the city was under their invasion for nearly a hundred years. Since its first conquest in 638 to 1099, this holy city was under Muslim rule; however, Crusaders occupied it in 1099 and stayed there for 88 years which is not a short amount of time whatsoever.
When Saladin besieged Jerusalem in 1187, he wanted to protect this sacred city from the catastrophe of war due to his great love for Baytul Maqdis an thus, he invited Crusaders to surrender many times but to no avail. Christians told him that they would not leave the city without a fight; then Saladin built a military quarter in front of Jerusalem in September 20, 1187. At first he attacked the northwestern walls and three days later managed to open a big hole in the city walls. Balian of Ibelin who was defending the city came to Saladin’s quarter on September 30 and talked the rules of surrender; Saladin let the people leave the city unharmed in exchange for a small amount of ransom. Accordingly, Crusaders were required to pay 10 dinars per man, 5 dinars per woman and 2 dinars per child within forty days. Additionally, thousands of people who did not have sufficient funds were also released. Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem only paid 10 dinars for himself and left Jerusalem with his carts filled with gold and silver. This humane attitude of Saladin was complete opposite of the atrocity shown by Crusaders when they invaded Jerusalem. On October 2, 1187 (27 Rajab 583), Saladin entered Jerusalem on Friday and did not show any barbarity in the city where Crusaders painted with blood eighty-eight years ago. While Crusaders were leaving Jerusalem, Orthodox and Jacobite Christians stayed in the city, Jews were allowed to settle into the city and the management of sacred places of Christians were given to Orthodox church (31).
Jerusalem has always held a significant place in Islam community owing to reasons such as its holiness in both Judaism and Christianity, Prophet Muhammed’s journey from Masjid al-Haram to Al-Aqsa Mosque (Isra’) for Mi’raj, being the first qiblah of Muslims and being referred in the Holy Quran. It should not be forgotten that sacred places are safeguarded due to their holiness under the protection of good servants of Allah. If Islamic world wakes up and unite and gain its power; starting with Jerusalem, many sacred places will go into hands of good people who are loved by Allah and these places will again become the centers of peace and quiet instead chaos and disturbance.
Demirkent, Işın, “Kudüs”, DİA, XXVI, 331.